Francisco Pizarro was born around 1474 in Trujillo, a small town in Extremadura, Spain, into a family of modest means. His father, Gonzalo Pizarro Rodríguez, was a minor noble and infantry captain who fought in Spanish campaigns, while his mother, Francisca González, was a peasant woman. Growing up in poverty, Pizarro received no formal education and remained illiterate throughout his life, a common trait among lower-class Spaniards of the time. As a young man, he worked as a swineherd, tending pigs in the fields, a humble beginning that contrasted sharply with his later ambitions. Driven by tales of wealth and glory in the New World, Pizarro sought a path to elevate his status, joining the wave of Spanish adventurers crossing the Atlantic in the early 16th century.
Pizarro’s early experiences in the Americas shaped his career as a conquistador. In 1502, he likely arrived in the Caribbean, possibly with the expedition of Nicolás de Ovando to Hispaniola. By 1513, he had joined Vasco Núñez de Balboa’s expedition across the Isthmus of Panama, where he participated in the first European sighting of the Pacific Ocean. This moment was pivotal, exposing Pizarro to the vast possibilities of unexplored lands. Over the next decade, he gained experience in Panama, serving in various minor roles and learning the brutal tactics of conquest, including the use of alliances with native groups and the exploitation of local rivalries.
In the 1520s, Pizarro’s ambition crystallized around rumors of a wealthy empire in South America. Partnering with Diego de Almagro, a fellow soldier, and Hernando de Luque, a priest, he organized two exploratory voyages along the Pacific coast in 1524 and 1526. These expeditions were grueling, marked by harsh weather, hostile encounters, and scarce resources. On the second voyage, Pizarro’s small party reached the northern fringes of the Inca Empire, encountering evidence of advanced civilizations, including gold artifacts and organized settlements. Despite setbacks, including Almagro’s near-mutiny, Pizarro secured royal approval from Spain in 1529 through the Capitulación de Toledo, granting him authority to conquer and govern the lands he discovered.
In 1532, Pizarro launched his most audacious campaign, landing on the coast of Peru with a force of about 180 men, including cavalry and artillery. The Inca Empire, sprawling across modern-day Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, and parts of Chile and Argentina, was a formidable target, with a population in the millions and a sophisticated infrastructure. However, it was weakened by a recent civil war between the brothers Atahualpa and Huáscar, compounded by the devastating impact of European diseases like smallpox, which had spread ahead of Pizarro’s arrival. Pizarro capitalized on these vulnerabilities, marching inland to Cajamarca, where he arranged a meeting with Atahualpa, the victorious Inca emperor.
The encounter at Cajamarca in November 1532 was a turning point. In a calculated act of treachery, Pizarro ambushed Atahualpa’s entourage, using superior weaponry—steel swords, firearms, and horses—to overwhelm the Inca forces. Atahualpa was captured, and Pizarro demanded an enormous ransom, reportedly enough gold and silver to fill a room. The Incas delivered vast quantities of precious metals, but Pizarro, fearing Atahualpa’s influence, ordered his execution in July 1533 after a mock trial. This act shattered Inca resistance, allowing Pizarro to advance to Cuzco, the empire’s capital, which he captured later that year. He installed a puppet ruler, Manco Inca, to maintain nominal control while consolidating Spanish dominance.
In 1535, Pizarro founded the city of Lima, originally called Ciudad de los Reyes (City of the Kings), which became the administrative and cultural center of Spanish Peru. As governor, he implemented the encomienda system, granting Spanish settlers control over native labor and resources in exchange for their Christianization and protection. This system enriched Pizarro and his followers but led to widespread exploitation and suffering among the indigenous population. His rule was marked by both ambition and instability, as rivalries among the conquistadors grew. His partnership with Diego de Almagro soured over disputes about territory and spoils, particularly after Almagro’s failed expedition to Chile. In 1537, tensions escalated into open conflict, known as the Almagro-Pizarro feud. Pizarro’s forces, led by his brothers, defeated Almagro at the Battle of Las Salinas in 1538, and Almagro was executed, further alienating his supporters.
Pizarro’s success made him a target. On June 26, 1541, a group of Almagro’s loyalists, led by Juan de Herrada, stormed Pizarro’s palace in Lima. Despite fighting back fiercely, the aging conquistador was overwhelmed and stabbed to death. He was approximately 67 years old. His assassination marked the end of his tumultuous career but did not undo his transformative impact on South America.
Pizarro’s conquest of the Inca Empire had profound consequences. It opened the region to Spanish colonization, leading to the extraction of immense wealth, particularly from silver mines like Potosí. However, it also caused catastrophic loss of life, with estimates suggesting millions of indigenous people died due to violence, disease, and forced labor in the decades following his arrival. The Incas’ intricate culture, including their art, architecture, and governance, was largely dismantled or repurposed under Spanish rule.
Pizarro’s legacy is deeply divisive. To some, he is a bold adventurer whose daring exploits expanded the Spanish Empire and brought Christianity to new lands. To others, he is a ruthless opportunist whose actions epitomize colonial greed and destruction. His lack of education and humble origins contrast with his cunning and relentless ambition, making him a complex figure in the history of European exploration. The fall of the Inca Empire under his command remains one of the most dramatic episodes of the Age of Conquest, reflecting both the audacity and the brutality of the era.