John Horse, also known as Juan Caballo, was a prominent African-American freedom fighter and abolitionist in the United States during the early 19th century. He was born around 1812 in Florida, which was then Spanish territory. John Horse was of mixed African and Seminole heritage. He belonged to the Black Seminoles, a community of escaped slaves and free African-Americans who joined forces with the Seminole tribe in Florida. They lived in the area known as “Negro Fort,” a fortified settlement in Spanish Florida.
In the early 1800s, tensions grew between the United States and the Seminole tribe, which led to the First Seminole War (1817-1818). John Horse actively participated in this conflict, fighting against the U.S. forces. He displayed strategic and leadership skills, becoming a respected figure among his people. After the First Seminole War, the United States acquired Florida from Spain, and in 1821, Florida became a U.S. territory. This change brought increased pressure on the Black Seminoles, as slaveholders in the United States sought to reclaim their escaped slaves.
In 1835, the Second Seminole War erupted, fueled by tensions over slavery and land. John Horse played a significant role in the resistance against the U.S. forces. He led a group of Black Seminoles known as the “Black Seminole Scouts” or the “Seminole Negro Indian Scouts.” They were skilled fighters and served as guides and interpreters for the U.S. Army in exchange for their freedom.
John Horse and the Black Seminole Scouts were key players in the conflict, fighting alongside Seminole leaders such as Osceola and Wild Cat. Their knowledge of the land and military strategies proved invaluable during the war. The conflict lasted for several years, but ultimately, the U.S. government failed to fully subdue the Seminoles.
After the war, many Black Seminoles, including John Horse, sought refuge in Mexico. They settled in the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas (now part of Texas) under an agreement with the Mexican government. They were granted land and freedom in exchange for their military service. In Mexico, John Horse continued to advocate for the rights of his people. He worked to secure land grants and protection for the Black Seminoles. He also fought against the institution of slavery and helped other fugitive slaves find refuge in Mexico.
John Horse’s exact date of death is unknown, but it is believed to be around 1882. He left behind a legacy of bravery and resistance, fighting for the rights and freedom of African-Americans and the Black Seminoles during a tumultuous period in American history. His contributions as a leader, warrior, and advocate continue to be recognized and celebrated today.