The Queen of Sheba (flourished 10th century BCE) is a legendary and semi-historical figure celebrated across Jewish, Christian, Islamic, and Ethiopian traditions as a wise, wealthy, and powerful ruler who visited King Solomon of Israel. Though unnamed in the Hebrew Bible, she is known as Bilqīs (or Balqis) in Islamic lore and Makeda in Ethiopian tradition. Her story symbolizes wisdom, cultural exchange, trade, and religious conversion, blending historical trade networks with rich legendary embellishments.
Biblical Account
The primary source is the Hebrew Bible in 1 Kings 10:1–13 (paralleled in 2 Chronicles 9:1–12). The Queen of Sheba, hearing of Solomon’s fame and wisdom “through the name of the Lord,” travels to Jerusalem to test him with “hard questions” (likely riddles or difficult inquiries). She arrives with a large caravan of camels carrying spices, gold, and precious stones—gifts reflecting the wealth of her kingdom. Impressed by Solomon’s wisdom, which surpasses reports, and by his court’s splendor, she praises both the king and his God: “Blessed be the Lord your God, who has delighted in you and set you on the throne of Israel!” (1 Kings 10:9). Solomon answers her questions, shows her his kingdom, and gives her “all that she desired” in return. She then returns to her land.
The account highlights themes of international diplomacy, trade, and Solomon’s reputation. It provides evidence of commercial ties between ancient Israel and southern Arabia, including Solomon’s Red Sea port at Ezion-geber. No direct archaeological proof of this specific queen exists, but the narrative aligns with known trade in gold, spices (like frankincense and myrrh), and precious stones.
Historical and Archaeological Context
Scholars generally identify Sheba with the ancient kingdom of Saba (or Sabaʾ) in southwestern Arabia, in present-day Yemen, centered around Marib (with its famous dam and irrigation systems). Saba was a prosperous trading state by the 10th century BCE, controlling incense routes and engaging in commerce across the Red Sea. Some traditions link her to Ethiopia or the Horn of Africa, possibly due to Sabaean cultural and commercial influence across the Red Sea (including parts of modern Eritrea and Ethiopia). The kingdom’s queens or female rulers appear in broader ancient Near Eastern contexts, lending plausibility to a powerful female monarch.
No inscriptions or artifacts directly name this queen from Solomon’s era, but the story fits the period’s trade networks. Extrabiblical sources like Assyrian records and later archaeology confirm Sabean wealth in spices, gold, and gems. Josephus (1st century CE) called her Nicaulis, queen of Egypt and Ethiopia.
Islamic Tradition (Bilqīs)
In the Qur’an (Surah al-Naml 27:15–44), the unnamed queen rules a sun-worshipping kingdom. Solomon, who commands jinn, birds, and humans, learns of her through the hoopoe. He sends a letter inviting submission to God. Impressed by his power (including the miraculous transport of her throne), she visits. A famous episode involves a crystal floor mistaken for water, causing her to bare her legs—highlighting her intelligence and eventual conversion to monotheism. Later Muslim commentators name her Bilqīs, add details like hairy legs (a demonic rumor), and debate her marriage to Solomon or a tribesman. She becomes a model of a wise ruler who recognizes truth and submits to God. Her story emphasizes dawah (invitation to faith) and prophetic wisdom.
Ethiopian Tradition (Makeda)
The 14th-century Kebra Nagast (“Glory of Kings”), Ethiopia’s national epic, elaborates the story extensively. Here, she is Makeda, queen of Ethiopia (or Axum). She visits Solomon, learns from him for six months, and—through a trick involving a shared meal and oath—spends the night with him, conceiving a son, Menelik I (or Bayna Lehkem).
Menelik later visits Solomon, is anointed, and returns to Ethiopia (legendarily with the Ark of the Covenant). This establishes the Solomonic dynasty, which Ethiopian emperors (including Haile Selassie, d. 1975) claimed as descendants, legitimizing their rule. Makeda converts to the worship of the God of Israel.
This version ties into Ethiopian identity, Christianity, and claims of possessing the Ark in Aksum.
Other Traditions and Legends
- Jewish midrash and Talmud: Expands on riddles, possible romance, and details like the glass floor. Some link her to figures like the mother of Nebuchadnezzar in variant tales.
- Christian interpretations: Jesus refers to her in the Gospels (Matthew 12:42; Luke 11:31) as the “Queen of the South,” who will judge unbelievers, praising her for seeking wisdom. She symbolizes Gentiles or outsiders recognizing truth.
- Persian and other folklore: Varied genealogies and magical elements.
Legends often include romance, though the Bible is silent on it. She is portrayed as intelligent, independent, and pious.
Legacy and Cultural Impact
The Queen of Sheba embodies feminine power, wisdom, and cross-cultural exchange in male-dominated ancient worlds. She appears in art (e.g., paintings by Piero della Francesca), literature, music (Handel’s oratorio), and folklore. Her story inspires discussions on trade, gender, religion, and African-Arabian connections. In modern times, she symbolizes Ethiopian heritage, Yemeni history, and interfaith dialogue. While her exact historicity remains debated (no definitive proof vs. plausible trade context), her enduring legend underscores ancient globalization and the power of wisdom across borders.
Her tale continues to captivate as a bridge between Arabia, Africa, and the biblical world, celebrated in diverse cultures for over 3,000 years.