Boley, Oklahoma, stands as one of the most remarkable and enduring examples of African American self-determination in U.S. history. Nestled in the western part of Okfuskee County, this historic all-Black town was founded in 1903 on land allotted to Abigail Barnett, the daughter of Creek freedman James Barnett. Named after J.B. Boley, a white railroad official from the Fort Smith and Western Railway who supported the idea of Black self-governance, the town was officially incorporated in 1905. It quickly grew into the largest and most prominent of more than 50 all-Black towns established in Oklahoma (of which only about 13 remain today).
By the early 20th century, Boley had become a thriving hub of Black enterprise and community life in what was then still the Indian Territory (before Oklahoma’s statehood in 1907). At its peak around 1911, the town boasted a population exceeding 4,000 residents, along with a bustling economy that included multiple grocery stores, hotels, restaurants, cotton gins, an electric generating plant, a water system, an ice plant, and even two colleges. It was home to one of the first Black-owned banks in the state—the Farmers and Merchants Bank, which held the distinction of being the first nationally chartered Black-owned bank—and the first Black-owned electric company.
The town’s success drew national attention. In 1905, renowned educator and leader Booker T. Washington, founder of the Tuskegee Institute and the National Negro Business League, visited Boley (with some accounts noting he returned later). Deeply impressed by its prosperity, self-governance, and spirit of enterprise, he described it in glowing terms, calling it “the most enterprising and in many ways the most interesting of the Negro towns in the United States.” In some retellings and local lore, he went further, hailing Boley as “the finest Black town in the world”—a testament to its status as a shining symbol of Black achievement amid widespread racial oppression.
Boley’s vibrant culture extended beyond business. The community was renowned statewide for its annual events, particularly the Boley Rodeo (now known as the Boley Rodeo & BBQ Festival), which dates back to the town’s founding era in 1903 and is recognized as the oldest continuously running all-Black rodeo in the United States. Held over Memorial Day weekend, it drew horsemen, cowboys, and spectators from across the region and beyond. The event celebrated Black cowboy heritage—a vital but often overlooked part of Western history—and fostered community pride, drawing interracial crowds and inspiring other rodeos in the South and West.
Tragedy and heroism marked Boley’s history as well. On November 23, 1932, during the depths of the Great Depression, three members of notorious bank robber Charles “Pretty Boy” Floyd’s gang—led by George Birdwell (Floyd’s right-hand man), along with Charles Glass and C.C. Patterson—attempted to rob the Farmers and Merchants Bank. Floyd himself reportedly warned against targeting the bank, cautioning his associates that Boley had little cash on hand and that its armed, determined residents—known for their hardworking, business-minded ethos—would not hesitate to defend themselves with firearms.
Ignoring the warning, the robbers burst in, ordering staff not to sound the alarm. Bank president D.J. Turner, a dedicated leader who loved his town, pulled the alarm anyway. Birdwell shot and killed Turner on the spot. Meanwhile, bookkeeper H.C. McCormick slipped into the vault, grabbed a rifle, and fired at Birdwell as the robber scooped up cash, mortally wounding him. As the remaining gang members fled outside, they were met by a crowd of Boley citizens who had heard the alarm and armed themselves with whatever weapons were at hand—squirrel rifles, bird guns, and more. In the ensuing shootout, town marshal J.L. McCormick (H.C.’s brother) killed Charles Glass. The third robber was seriously wounded, and the robbery was thoroughly thwarted.
Pretty Boy Floyd vowed revenge for the deaths of his comrades, but he never returned; he was killed by law enforcement in Ohio less than two years later, in October 1934.
Boley’s story is one of resilience, from its rise as a beacon of Black prosperity and autonomy to its defiance against outlaws and its enduring traditions like the rodeo. Though the town faced decline in the 1920s and 1930s due to economic hardships, railroad failures, and broader challenges for rural Black communities, it has seen revivals in recent decades. Today, with a population of around 1,000, Boley remains a powerful symbol of Black excellence, self-reliance, and cultural heritage, listed on the National Register of Historic Places and recognized along the Oklahoma Civil Rights Trail. Its legacy continues to inspire, reminding us of the extraordinary communities built in the face of adversity.