Fascism and Its Racial Overtones
Fascism, a far-right authoritarian ideology that dominated parts of Europe in the early 20th century, is often associated with extreme nationalism, militarism, and the suppression of individual rights in favor of the state. While its core tenets emphasize national unity and a strong leader, fascism’s racial overtones—particularly in its most notorious forms—have left an indelible mark on history. This article examines the relationship between fascism and racism, exploring how racial ideologies were woven into its framework and how they manifested differently across regimes.
Defining Fascism
Fascism emerged in the aftermath of World War I, with Benito Mussolini’s Italy (1919) and Adolf Hitler’s Nazi Germany (1933) as its most prominent examples. It is characterized by ultranationalism, a rejection of liberal democracy, and the prioritization of the nation over the individual. Fascists often exploit economic hardship and social unrest, channeling public discontent toward scapegoated groups like minorities, immigrants, or political opponents. As historian Robert Paxton notes, fascism thrives on a narrative of national decline, promising restoration through unity and strength, often at the expense of those deemed “outsiders.”
Racial Ideology in Fascism
While not all fascist movements were explicitly racist, racial ideologies often played a central role, particularly in Nazi Germany. The Nazis’ concept of the Volksgemeinschaft (people’s community) was built on the notion of racial purity, with the “Aryan” race elevated as superior. This ideology justified the Holocaust, where six million Jews, alongside millions of Slavs, Roma, and others, were murdered in a systematic campaign of genocide. Historians like Umberto Eco and Kevin Passmore emphasize that racism was a defining feature of German fascism, targeting Jews as a racial rather than religious group.
In contrast, Italian Fascism under Mussolini initially downplayed biological racism, focusing instead on cultural and spiritual conceptions of Italian identity. Mussolini himself stated in 1932 that race was “a feeling, not a reality,” rejecting the idea of biologically pure races. However, by 1938, political pressures from Nazi Germany led to the adoption of the “Manifesto of Race” and antisemitic laws, which marginalized Jews and non-Europeans in Italian colonies. These policies, though less ideologically rigid than Nazism, still enforced racial hierarchies, particularly in Italy’s African colonies, where segregation was justified as a “civilizing” mission.
The Role of Scapegoating
Fascism often relies on scapegoating to unify the “in-group” against a perceived “other.” In times of economic or social crisis, fascists redirect public anger toward marginalized groups. For example, Nazis blamed Jews for Germany’s economic woes and cultural “decadence,” while Croatian fascists targeted Serbs and Jews in the Independent State of Croatia during World War II. This ingroup-outgroup dynamic, as described by philosopher Jason Stanley, fosters a cult of the leader who promises to restore national greatness by eliminating these supposed threats.
Black radical thinkers, such as George Padmore and Langston Hughes, have long argued that fascism’s racial overtones were not unique to Europe but echoed the racial violence of colonial systems and American racial slavery. Padmore described South Africa’s apartheid system as a “classic Fascist state,” highlighting how settler-colonial racism mirrored fascist ideologies. This perspective challenges the notion that fascism was an exclusively European phenomenon, linking it to broader histories of racial oppression.
Variations Across Fascist Movements
Not all fascist movements embraced racism uniformly. In France, early fascist groups like the Faisceau and Young Patriots accepted Jewish members until the mid-1930s, when antisemitism grew under Nazi influence. Similarly, British fascism under Oswald Mosley initially avoided antisemitism but adopted it by 1936, reflecting the fluidity of fascist ideologies adapting to political contexts. These variations show that while racism was not inherent to all fascist movements, it often became a tool to consolidate power or align with allies like Nazi Germany.
Contemporary Echoes
The racial overtones of historical fascism resonate in modern far-right movements, which often exploit anti-immigrant sentiment and racial anxieties. Posts on platforms like X highlight ongoing debates about fascism’s racial dimensions, with some users noting its ties to white supremacy and others arguing it can exist without racism, focusing instead on nationalism. Historian Robert Paxton, initially skeptical of labeling contemporary movements as fascist, has recently expressed alarm at global trends, including in the U.S., where rhetoric blaming minorities for national decline mirrors fascist tactics.
Fascism’s racial overtones, while not universal, were a defining feature in its most destructive forms, particularly in Nazi Germany. By constructing narratives of racial superiority and scapegoating minorities, fascist regimes justified violence, exclusion, and genocide. Yet, the diversity of fascist movements shows that racism was often a strategic choice, shaped by political alliances and cultural contexts. Understanding this history is crucial for recognizing how modern authoritarian movements may exploit similar racial dynamics, reminding us to remain vigilant against ideologies that thrive on division and dehumanization.