Assimilation Through Education
In 1879, a controversial experiment in Native American education began in Pennsylvania that would ultimately impact thousands of Indigenous children and shape federal Indian policy for decades. The Carlisle Indian Industrial School, founded by Captain Richard Henry Pratt, became the model for Indian boarding schools across the United States, operating under the philosophy of forced assimilation summarized in Pratt’s infamous words: “Kill the Indian, save the man.”
The Carlisle Indian Industrial School opened its doors on November 1, 1879, in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, at a former military barracks. Its founder, Captain Richard Henry Pratt, had previously overseen imprisoned Native Americans at Fort Marion in Florida. Based on his experiences there, Pratt developed his educational philosophy centered on complete cultural transformation through strict military-style discipline, removal from tribal influences, and immersion in Euro-American culture. Pratt secured government funding for his school by convincing federal officials that education could be used as a tool for assimilating Native Americans into mainstream American society—a more “humane” alternative to ongoing military conflicts with Indigenous nations.
Carlisle’s approach to education was based on several key principles: complete separation from tribal communities and families, cultural erasure through the prohibition of Native languages and cultural expressions, military-style discipline with uniforms and rigid schedules, vocational training focused on manual labor, English-only policies, and Christian education. Upon arrival, students experienced immediate transformation efforts. Their hair was cut short (deeply significant and traumatic in many Native cultures), traditional clothing was replaced with uniforms, and Native names were changed to English ones. The school’s “before and after” photographs became infamous propaganda tools, showing students in traditional dress juxtaposed with images of the same children in Western attire.
Students at Carlisle followed a strict regimen that divided their days between academic instruction and vocational training. Half of each day was spent in classroom instruction, focusing on basic English, arithmetic, geography, and history. The remaining hours were dedicated to vocational training—carpentry, blacksmithing, and farming for boys; sewing, cooking, and laundry for girls. Military drills and religious instruction were regular activities. A distinctive feature of Carlisle was the “outing system,” which placed students with white families during summers and sometimes longer periods, often amounting to indentured servitude.
One of the school’s most enduring legacies came through its athletic programs. The Carlisle football team, coached by Glenn “Pop” Warner, gained national recognition by competing successfully against established universities like Harvard and Yale. The school’s most famous student, Jim Thorpe (Sac and Fox), became an Olympic gold medalist and multi-sport professional athlete after attending Carlisle, bringing attention to both the school and Native American athletic abilities.
During its 39 years of operation (1879-1918), Carlisle enrolled approximately 10,000 Native American children from over 140 tribes. The outcomes for these students varied widely: many died while at the school, primarily from disease, with documented burials of at least 186 children; some graduates became advocates for Native rights and cultural preservation; others embraced assimilation and served as government liaisons; many returned to reservations caught between two worlds, no longer fully at home in either. The school’s cultural impact extended beyond its students, becoming the model for dozens of similar institutions. By 1900, there were 20,000 Native American children in boarding schools, with that number peaking at about 60,000 by the 1920s.
Even during its operation, Carlisle faced criticism from various sources. Native communities resisted sending their children, sometimes having them taken forcibly by authorities. Progressive-era reformers eventually questioned the harsh discipline and cultural suppression. Government investigations revealed cases of mistreatment, inadequate medical care, and exploitation of student labor. The school closed in 1918 when the property was reclaimed by the War Department for use as a hospital for soldiers returning from World War I. Ironically, many Carlisle alumni had served in that same war, demonstrating their patriotism despite their treatment.
In recent decades, there has been growing recognition of the trauma inflicted by Carlisle and similar institutions. Efforts at reconciliation have included the Northern Arapaho Tribe successfully repatriating the remains of three children from the Carlisle cemetery in 2017, with additional tribes since recovering ancestral remains for proper burial in their homelands. The site now houses the U.S. Army War College, which maintains a small exhibit about the Indian School. In 2000, the Bureau of Indian Affairs formally apologized for the federal government’s role in the boarding school system. The Carlisle Indian Industrial School represents a painful chapter in American history, embodying both the destructive power of forced assimilation policies and the remarkable resilience of Native American cultures that survived despite systematic attempts at erasure. Its legacy continues to resonate in ongoing discussions about historical trauma, cultural genocide, and the rights of Indigenous peoples to educational self-determination.