Sir John A. Macdonald, Canada’s first prime minister, is often celebrated as one of the founding fathers of Canadian Confederation. Macdonald was born on January 11, 1815, in Glasgow, Scotland, and he immigrated to Upper Canada (modern-day Ontario) with his family in 1820, settling in Kingston. He grew up in a modest household, and his early life was marked by financial struggles after his father’s business ventures failed. Despite these challenges, McDonald’s pursued a career in law, becoming a successful lawyer and eventually entering politics. He served as prime minister from July 1, 1867, to November 5, 1873, and again from October 17, 1878, until his death on June 6, 1891, in Ottawa, Ontario. While his contributions to nation-building are undeniable, his policies toward Indigenous peoples and his connections to slavery in the United States reveal a darker side of his legacy.
Macdonald’s tenure as prime minister was marked by systemic racism and oppressive policies toward Indigenous communities. His government implemented measures that sought to assimilate Indigenous peoples into Euro-Canadian society, often through coercive and destructive means. Under his leadership, the Canadian government passed the Indian Act in 1876, a piece of legislation that sought to control and assimilate Indigenous peoples. The Act imposed a colonial governance system on Indigenous communities, restricted their movements, and outlawed traditional practices such as ceremonies and cultural gatherings.
It also introduced the residential school system, which aimed to forcibly assimilate Indigenous children by removing them from their families and communities. Macdonald’s government established residential schools in the 1880s, which were run by churches and funded by the federal government. These schools were designed to “kill the Indian in the child,” as famously stated by Duncan Campbell Scott, a deputy superintendent of the Department of Indian Affairs. Children were forcibly taken from their families, forbidden from speaking their languages, and subjected to physical, emotional, and sexual abuse. The residential school system caused intergenerational trauma and cultural genocide, the effects of which are still felt today.
Macdonald’s government also used starvation as a tactic to subdue Indigenous resistance, particularly on the Prairies. During the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway, bison herds—a primary food source for Plains Indigenous peoples—were decimated. Instead of providing adequate support, Macdonald’s government withheld food rations to force Indigenous peoples onto reserves and compel them to abandon their traditional ways of life. Macdonald’s government dealt harshly with Métis leader Louis Riel, who led the North-West Resistance in defense of Métis rights and land. Riel was captured, tried, and executed in 1885, a decision that further alienated Indigenous and Métis communities and solidified Macdonald’s reputation as an oppressor of Indigenous peoples.
While Macdonald’s policies toward Indigenous peoples are well-documented, his connections to slavery in the United States are less widely known. Macdonald was not directly involved in slavery, but his actions and alliances reveal a troubling indifference to the institution. During the mid-19th century, Canada was a destination for enslaved African Americans fleeing the United States via the Underground Railroad. However, Macdonald’s political career began in the 1840s, when Canada was still grappling with its stance on slavery. Although slavery had been abolished in the British Empire (including Canada) in 1834, Macdonald’s Conservative Party was often aligned with pro-slavery interests in the United States.
During the American Civil War, Macdonald’s government faced diplomatic tensions with the United States over the Trent Affair in 1861, in which Confederate diplomats were captured by Union forces while traveling to Britain via a British mail ship. Macdonald’s government, while officially neutral, had sympathies with the Confederacy due to economic ties and shared conservative values. This alignment indirectly supported the pro-slavery Confederacy, though Macdonald himself did not openly advocate for slavery. Macdonald’s racist views extended beyond Indigenous peoples. He frequently expressed disdain for non-white populations, including Black and Chinese communities. For example, he supported the Chinese Head Tax, a discriminatory policy aimed at limiting Chinese immigration to Canada.
In his personal life, Macdonald faced significant hardships. He married his cousin, Isabella Clark, in 1843, and the couple had two sons, but only one, Hugh John, survived infancy. Isabella suffered from chronic illness, and her health struggles placed a heavy emotional and financial burden on Macdonald. After she died in 1857, Macdonald remarried in 1867 to Susan Agnes Bernard, with whom he had one daughter, Margaret Mary. Despite his family challenges, Macdonald remained dedicated to his political career, though his struggles with alcoholism were well-known and often criticized by his opponents.
Sir John A. Macdonald’s legacy is complex. While he played a pivotal role in uniting Canada and building the Canadian Pacific Railway, his policies toward Indigenous peoples were deeply harmful and rooted in racism. His indifference to slavery and his alignment with pro-slavery interests further complicate his historical reputation. In recent years, there has been a growing movement to reassess Macdonald’s place in Canadian history. Statues of Macdonald have been removed or relocated, and there is increasing recognition of the need to confront the injustices he perpetuated. As Canada continues to grapple with its colonial past, Macdonald’s legacy serves as a reminder of the importance of acknowledging historical wrongs and working toward reconciliation with Indigenous peoples and other marginalized communities.
Sir John A. Macdonald’s contributions to Canada’s founding cannot be ignored, but neither can the harm caused by his racist policies. His treatment of Indigenous peoples and his connections to slavery underscore the need for a more nuanced understanding of Canada’s history—one that celebrates progress while confronting the injustices of the past. Macdonald’s life, marked by both personal struggles and political achievements, reflects the complexities of a nation still coming to terms with its history.