These Africans shamelessly played an active role in the Transatlantic Slave Trade

Rabih az-Zubayr (1842–1900) was a prominent Sudanese warlord and slave trader who carved out a significant empire in the region east of Lake Chad, encompassing parts of present-day Chad, Sudan, and the Central African Republic. Born in Khartoum, Sudan, Rabih rose to prominence in the late 19th century during a period of intense regional conflict and colonial expansion in Central Africa. His life was marked by military conquests, strategic alliances, and brutal campaigns that left a lasting impact on the region.

Initially, Rabih served as a trusted lieutenant to Sebehr Rahma, a powerful Sudanese slaveholder and merchant who controlled vast trade networks in the region. Under Sebehr’s command, Rabih honed his skills as a military leader and administrator, gaining experience in managing trade routes and organizing armed forces. After Sebehr’s influence waned due to conflicts with the Egyptian authorities and the Mahdist uprising in Sudan, Rabih struck out on his own, seeking to establish his own power base.

In the 1870s and 1880s, Rabih embarked on a series of military campaigns, conquering local kingdoms and chiefdoms in the region. His forces, composed of well-armed and disciplined soldiers, including many enslaved recruits, overpowered smaller polities and established a centralized empire. Rabih’s empire was built on the control of key trade routes, particularly those involving slaves, ivory, and other commodities highly valued in the regional and international markets of the time. His capital, initially located at Dar al-Kuti, became a hub of military and economic activity.

Rabih’s rule was characterized by both strategic brilliance and extreme brutality. He imposed heavy tributes on subjugated populations, often demanding slaves and resources, and maintained control through a combination of fear and alliances with local elites. His empire stood as a significant regional power, resisting both internal rebellions and external pressures from neighboring states and emerging colonial powers.

By the late 1890s, Rabih’s actions drew the attention of European colonial forces, particularly the French, who were expanding their influence in Central Africa. In 1897, tensions escalated when Rabih’s forces attacked and killed French emissaries sent to negotiate with him, an act that provoked a decisive French military response. In 1900, French colonial troops, equipped with superior weaponry, confronted Rabih’s forces in the Battle of Kousséri. Rabih was defeated and killed in the battle, marking the end of his empire and paving the way for French colonial dominance in the region.
Rabih az-Zubayr’s legacy is complex. To some, he was a ruthless warlord whose empire was built on exploitation and violence, particularly through the slave trade. To others, he was a skilled leader who resisted colonial encroachment and unified disparate groups under a single authority. His story reflects the turbulent dynamics of power, trade, and colonialism in 19th-century Central Africa.

Al-Zubayr Rahma Mansur (1830–1913) was a prominent and controversial figure in 19th-century Sudan, known for his roles as a powerful slave trader, merchant, and later a governor. His life and actions reflect the complex socio-political dynamics of Sudan during a period marked by colonial ambitions, economic exploitation, and resistance to foreign intervention. Often described as the “Slaver King,” Al-Zubayr amassed immense wealth and influence through the slave trade, becoming one of the most formidable figures in the region. His rivalry with British authorities, particularly General Charles Gordon, and his larger-than-life persona—reputedly accompanied by chained lions as part of his entourage—cemented his legacy as a polarizing figure.

Early Life and Rise to Power
Born around 1830 in the Gemaab region of northern Sudan, Al-Zubayr Rahma Mansur hailed from a modest background but demonstrated ambition and entrepreneurial skill early on. Sudan during this period was under Ottoman-Egyptian rule (the Turkiyah, 1821–1885), and the region was a hub for trade routes connecting sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, and beyond. Al-Zubayr capitalized on these networks, initially engaging in legitimate commerce before becoming deeply involved in the lucrative and brutal slave trade.

By the mid-19th century, Al-Zubayr had established himself as a dominant figure in the Bahr el-Ghazal and Darfur regions of southern Sudan. He built a vast trading empire, controlling key routes for the export of slaves, ivory, and other commodities. His operations relied on a private army of enslaved soldiers (often referred to as bazingers), which he used to raid villages, capture slaves, and secure his dominance. His wealth and military power earned him the title of the “richest and worst” among his contemporaries, a man whose influence rivaled that of the Ottoman-Egyptian authorities.

The Slave Trade and Regional Influence
The slave trade was a central pillar of Al-Zubayr’s wealth. During the 19th century, Sudan was a major source of enslaved people, who were sold to markets in Egypt, the Ottoman Empire, and the Arabian Peninsula. Al-Zubayr’s operations were highly organized, with fortified trading posts (zaribas) and alliances with local tribal leaders. His ability to navigate the complex ethnic and political landscape of Sudan allowed him to maintain control over vast territories, effectively creating a semi-autonomous state in Bahr el-Ghazal.
His reputation as the “Slaver King” was not only due to his wealth but also to his flamboyant and intimidating persona. European accounts, particularly from British sources, described Al-Zubayr as traveling with an entourage that included chained lions, a symbol of his power and audacity. While these reports may have been exaggerated for dramatic effect, they contributed to his mythos as a larger-than-life figure who defied both local and foreign authorities.

Conflict with Charles Gordon and British Authorities
Al-Zubayr’s growing power brought him into direct conflict with the Ottoman-Egyptian administration and later the British, who sought to suppress the slave trade in Sudan. In 1874, General Charles Gordon was appointed Governor-General of Sudan by the Khedive of Egypt, with a mandate to curb slavery and extend centralized control. Gordon’s moral crusade against the slave trade put him at odds with Al-Zubayr, whose wealth and influence depended on it.

The rivalry between the two men was intense. Gordon viewed Al-Zubayr as the epitome of the slave trade’s brutality, while Al-Zubayr saw Gordon’s reforms as a threat to his livelihood and autonomy. In 1877, Al-Zubayr was invited to Cairo under the pretext of negotiations but was effectively detained by the Egyptian authorities, likely at the urging of the British. This move stripped him of direct control over his territories, though his influence persisted through his allies and family.

Governorship and Later Life
Despite his detention, Al-Zubayr’s story took a surprising turn. In recognition of his influence, the Ottoman-Egyptian authorities appointed him as a governor of Bahr el-Ghazal in absentia, hoping to co-opt his power. However, Al-Zubayr never fully returned to his former dominance in Sudan. His detention in Cairo marked a decline in his direct control over the slave trade, though his networks continued to operate.

The rise of the Mahdist movement in the 1880s further complicated Al-Zubayr’s legacy. His son, Suleiman, led a rebellion against Egyptian rule but was defeated by Gordon’s forces in 1879. Al-Zubayr himself remained in exile during the Mahdist War (1881–1899), which overthrew Ottoman-Egyptian rule and established an Islamic state in Sudan. After the British reconquest of Sudan in 1898, Al-Zubayr was allowed to return, but his influence had waned. He lived out his final years in relative obscurity, dying in 1913.

Legacy and Historical Context
Al-Zubayr Rahma Mansur remains a polarizing figure in Sudanese history. To some, he was a ruthless opportunist who profited from human suffering, embodying the worst excesses of the 19th-century slave trade. To others, he was a shrewd leader who navigated a turbulent era, carving out a sphere of influence in defiance of foreign powers. His conflict with Charles Gordon highlights the broader tensions between colonial ambitions and local power structures in Sudan.

Al-Zubayr’s life also underscores the complexities of the slave trade in Africa, which involved not only European and Middle Eastern demand but also African intermediaries like Al-Zubayr who played critical roles in its operation. His story is a window into the economic and political dynamics of 19th-century Sudan, where trade, power, and resistance intertwined.

In modern scholarship, Al-Zubayr is often studied as a case study in the intersection of commerce, power, and morality. His nickname, the “Slaver King,” and the tales of his chained lions continue to capture the imagination, but they also risk oversimplifying a man who was both a product of his time and a shaper of it. His legacy remains a subject of debate, reflecting the enduring challenges of interpreting historical figures in morally complex contexts.

Muhammad bin Khalfan bin Khamis al-Barwani, known as Rumaliza, was a prominent Swahili trader in East Africa during the late nineteenth century, dealing primarily in slaves and ivory. He rose to significant power with the support of Tippu Tip, another influential trader, eventually becoming the Sultan of Ujiji, a key trading hub. At the height of his influence, Rumaliza controlled much of the trade in Tanganyika, amassing wealth and authority through his extensive commercial network.

His operations, however, were marked by extreme brutality. Stories and accounts from the time describe Rumaliza and his trading parties engaging in horrific acts of violence and cruelty. They were notorious for kidnapping women, mutilating men by cutting off their genitals to create eunuchs for the slave trade, and inflicting other gruesome punishments such as severing limbs, piercing noses and ears, and burning entire villages. These acts of terror were often used to instill fear and maintain control over the regions they operated in, ensuring compliance from local populations and facilitating their trade in human lives and resources.

In 1892, Belgian colonial forces, led by Francis Dhanis, initiated a campaign to curb the activities of slave traders in the region. Rumaliza became a primary target due to his dominant role in the slave trade and the widespread atrocities associated with his operations. As the Belgian forces advanced, he was forced to flee, abandoning his stronghold in Ujiji and marking the decline of his influence in East Africa. His flight underscored the growing pressure from European colonial powers to dismantle the slave trade networks that had long thrived in the region, though his legacy of violence and exploitation left a lasting impact on the communities he had terrorized.

William Ansah Sessarakoo, born around 1736 and passing in 1770, was a significant figure in 18th-century Ghana, known for his remarkable journey through wrongful enslavement, a diplomatic visit to England, and his complex role in the transatlantic slave trade. As a member of the Fante people, he held prominence in his native Annamaboe (modern-day Anomabo, Ghana) and became influential among Europeans engaged in trade and diplomacy during a tumultuous era.

Ansah was the son of John Correntee, a powerful chief caboceer and leader of the Annamaboe government. Correntee was a key figure in the region, deeply involved in the slave trade and a critical ally for European traders operating in the bustling port city. Recognizing the importance of European connections, Correntee decided to send his son to England to receive a formal education and serve as a representative of Annamaboe’s interests in Europe, effectively acting as his father’s eyes and ears in a distant land.

However, Ansah’s journey took a tragic turn when the ship captain entrusted with his safe passage betrayed him. Instead of delivering him to England, the captain sold Ansah into slavery in Barbados, a British colony in the West Indies. For years, Ansah endured the brutal conditions of enslavement, far from his intended destination. His plight remained unknown until a free Fante trader, likely traveling for commerce, recognized him in Barbados. The trader informed John Correntee of his son’s fate, prompting Correntee to take swift action. He petitioned British authorities for his son’s release, leveraging his influence as a key trading partner. The Royal African Company, the English corporation overseeing much of the slave trade in the region, intervened, securing Ansah’s freedom and arranging his transport to England, his original destination.

Upon arriving in England, Ansah was received with the dignity befitting a prince. His story of betrayal and resilience captivated London’s high society, and he quickly gained their respect and admiration. He moved among elite circles, where his presence challenged prevailing notions about Africans during a time when the slave trade was a cornerstone of European economies. A notable moment during his stay occurred when he attended a theatrical performance in London. The play depicted the story of an African prince wrongfully enslaved, a narrative that mirrored Ansah’s own experiences. Overwhelmed by the parallels, he reportedly fled the theater in tears, surprising the audience and revealing the deep emotional impact of his ordeal.

After his time in England, Ansah returned to Annamaboe, where he took up a position as a writer at Cape Coast Castle, a major British trading post on the Gold Coast. This role placed him within the administrative heart of the slave trade, where he managed records and correspondence. Later in life, Ansah himself became involved in the slave trade, a complex and contradictory choice given his own experience of enslavement. His participation reflected the intricate dynamics of power, commerce, and survival in 18th-century West Africa, where local elites often navigated fraught relationships with European powers.

Ansah’s life encapsulates the contradictions of his era—a man who endured the horrors of slavery, represented his people on an international stage, and ultimately participated in the very system that had once victimized him. His story offers a window into the intersections of African agency, European imperialism, and the transatlantic slave trade, highlighting both the personal and political complexities of the time.

During the 18th and 19th centuries, the island of Gorée in French Senegal was home to a unique group of Mulatto French-African women known as Signares. These women, born from unions between European men and African women, occupied a distinctive position within the social and economic fabric of the Atlantic Slave Trade. Through their ingenuity, charisma, and strategic alliances, they carved out spaces of influence, accumulating personal wealth, social status, and a degree of power in a world dominated by colonial hierarchies.

Signares were often involved in trade and commerce, leveraging their connections with European traders and African communities to amass assets. Their wealth might include property, goods, or even enslaved people, reflecting the complex and morally fraught dynamics of their environment. Their status allowed them to navigate the rigid social structures of the time, positioning them as intermediaries who could broker deals, form partnerships, and wield influence in both colonial and local spheres. This intermediary role made them pivotal figures in the economic and cultural exchanges that defined Gorée’s role as a key hub in the Atlantic world.

Among the prominent Signares were women like Victoria Albis, Hélène Aussenac, Anna Colas Pépin, Anne Pépin, Mary de Saint Jean, and Crispina Peres. Each of these women left a mark through their ability to maneuver within the constraints of their era, building networks and reputations that elevated their standing. Their homes, often grand and well-appointed, served as centers of social activity, where they hosted European merchants, colonial officials, and local elites, further solidifying their influence. These gatherings were not merely social but also strategic, fostering alliances that enhanced their economic and political leverage.

The Signares’ legacy is a testament to their resilience and adaptability in a deeply hierarchical and oppressive system. While their wealth and status were often tied to the exploitative structures of the slave trade, their ability to thrive in such a challenging environment highlights their agency and resourcefulness. Their stories offer a nuanced perspective on the intersections of race, gender, and power in the colonial Atlantic world, illustrating how they navigated complex identities to secure a place of prominence in a turbulent era.

Francisco Félix de Sousa (1754–1849) was a prominent figure in the transatlantic slave trade, as well as a merchant dealing in palm oil, gold, and other commodities. Born in Brazil, he was of Afro-Brazilian descent and later migrated to the region that is now the Republic of Benin in West Africa. His extensive involvement in the slave trade earned him the notorious title of “the greatest slave trader” due to the scale and influence of his operations.

De Sousa’s activities persisted even after the slave trade was outlawed in many parts of the world. His ability to maintain his enterprise was partly due to the deep trust he cultivated with local communities in Dahomey (modern-day Benin). This trust was so significant that he was granted the rare honor of being recognized as a chieftain within the local social and political structure, a testament to his integration and influence in the region.

His early life and activities in Africa are chronicled in detail by historian Alberto Costa e Silva in a comprehensive Portuguese-language article titled “The Early Years of Francisco Félix de Souza on the Slave Coast.” This work provides valuable insights into his establishment as a key figure along the West African coast, particularly in the context of the slave trade and regional commerce.

Despite his Catholic faith, de Sousa embraced the Vodun religion, which aligned with his Afro-Brazilian heritage. This syncretism was not uncommon among individuals of African descent in the Americas who maintained cultural and spiritual ties to African traditions. He went so far as to establish a personal family shrine dedicated to Vodun practices, reflecting his deep engagement with the local culture. De Sousa spent much of his life in Dahomey, where he eventually died and was laid to rest in 1849. His legacy remains complex, marked by his commercial success, cultural adaptability, and controversial role in one of history’s most inhumane trades.

Efunroye Tinubu, born in 1810 and passing in 1887, was a formidable and influential figure in Nigerian history, known for her role as a powerful female aristocrat and slave trader during both pre-colonial and colonial eras in Nigeria. Her prominence was particularly evident in Lagos, where she wielded significant political and economic influence during the reigns of several Obas, including Adele, Oluwole, Akitoye, and Dosunmu. Her wealth, charisma, and strategic acumen allowed her to navigate the complex socio-political landscape of Lagos, establishing her as a key player in the region’s affairs.

In December 1851, the British intervened in Lagos under the guise of abolishing the slave trade, launching a bombardment that ousted Oba Kosoko from power and installed Akitoye, who was more compliant with British interests, as the new Oba. Akitoye, under pressure from the British, signed a treaty in 1852 that formally outlawed the slave trade in Lagos. However, Efunroye Tinubu skillfully undermined this agreement, continuing to engage in the slave trade covertly. She maintained lucrative trade networks with Brazilian and Portuguese merchants, exchanging slaves for firearms and other goods. This defiance of the British-imposed treaty not only sustained her wealth and influence but also highlighted her ability to maneuver within the shifting dynamics of colonial power and local governance.

Tinubu’s legacy is complex, as she was both a product of her time and a trailblazer. As a woman in a male-dominated society, her ability to amass power and influence was remarkable, yet her involvement in the slave trade remains a controversial aspect of her story. Her actions reflect the intricate interplay of commerce, power, and resistance in a period of significant upheaval, as European colonial ambitions clashed with African agency and economic systems. Tinubu’s life illustrates the challenges and contradictions faced by African elites navigating the transition from pre-colonial to colonial rule, leaving an indelible mark on Lagos and Nigerian history.

Bibiana Vaz de França (1630–1694) was a formidable figure in the seventeenth-century West African slave trade, operating primarily out of Cacheu, a key trading hub in what is now Guinea-Bissau. Renowned for her wealth and influence, she rose to prominence in a male-dominated commercial landscape, leveraging her business acumen to amass significant power. Her marriage to one of the wealthiest men in Guinea further solidified her status, granting her access to resources and networks that enhanced her position as a leading slave-trader.

In 1687, Bibiana Vaz faced a dramatic turn of events when Portuguese colonial authorities arrested her and transported her to São Tiago (now known as Santiago), an island in the Cape Verde archipelago, where she was held as a prisoner. The reasons for her arrest remain a subject of historical debate, but they likely stemmed from tensions between her growing influence and the interests of Portuguese officials seeking to exert greater control over the lucrative slave trade. Despite their efforts, the authorities were unable to seize her considerable property, a testament to her wealth and the complexity of her commercial operations.

In a negotiated resolution, the Portuguese granted Bibiana Vaz a pardon, but it came with conditions. She was required to pay a substantial indemnity and commit to building a fort in Bolor, a strategic location along the Cacheu River that was critical for trade and defense. This fort was intended to strengthen Portuguese control over the region and facilitate the expansion of their colonial ambitions. However, Bibiana Vaz never fulfilled this promise, and the fort was never constructed. Her refusal or inability to follow through on this obligation highlights her independence and perhaps her resistance to colonial oversight.

Bibiana Vaz’s life offers a window into the complex dynamics of power, trade, and gender in seventeenth-century West Africa. As a woman navigating the brutal realities of the slave trade, she wielded significant economic and social influence, challenging the constraints of her time. Her story also underscores the tensions between local actors and European colonial powers, as well as the intricate negotiations that shaped the early modern Atlantic world. Despite her eventual pardon, her legacy remains a subject of fascination, reflecting both the opportunities and the moral complexities of her era.

Joaquina dos Santos e Silva was a prominent and influential figure in 19th-century Luanda, known for her significant role in the region’s economic and social landscape. Born into an Angolan elite family of mixed African and Portuguese heritage, she navigated the complex cultural and commercial environment of colonial Angola with remarkable acumen. Her wealth and status were primarily derived from her involvement in the transatlantic slave trade, where she played a central role in supplying enslaved Africans to traders who transported them to the Americas. This trade, a cornerstone of the economy in Luanda at the time, allowed her to amass a considerable fortune and influence, cementing her position as a powerful figure in the city’s history.

Her legacy is intricately tied to the physical and historical landscape of Luanda. Until the early 2000s, her home and the warehouse where enslaved individuals were held before being sold stood as enduring symbols of her prominence in the Cidade Baixa district of Luanda. These structures, once central to her operations, were later demolished and repurposed, with the site being transformed into a court of justice.

Despite this transformation, traces of Angola’s slaving past, in which Dona Ana Joaquina played a dominant role, remain visible in the capital. Her story reflects the complexities of power, race, and commerce in colonial Angola, where individuals of mixed descent often occupied unique positions of influence within the colonial framework. Her life and activities continue to be a point of historical reflection, illustrating both the economic mechanisms of the era and the enduring impact of the slave trade on Angola’s history.