African National Congress (ANC)

South Africa’s Liberation Movement and Governing Party

The African National Congress (ANC) stands as one of the world’s most iconic political organizations, synonymous with the fight against apartheid and the birth of modern democratic South Africa. Founded over a century ago as a beacon of Black South African rights, the ANC evolved from a modest advocacy group into a mass liberation movement, enduring bans, exile, and armed resistance before leading the nation into freedom in 1994. Today, under President Cyril Ramaphosa, it navigates coalition politics amid financial woes and calls for reform, striving to uphold its legacy of non-racialism and social justice in a post-apartheid era marked by persistent inequality..

Founding and Early Years (1912–1940s)

The ANC traces its roots to January 8, 1912, when it was established in Bloemfontein as the South African Native National Congress (SANNC). Renamed in 1923, the African National Congress emerged from earlier groups, such as the Imbumba Yama Nyama, to unite Black South Africans against colonial dispossession and racial discrimination. Key founders included Pixley ka Isaka Seme, Sol Plaatje, John Langalibalele Dube, and Walter Rubusana—educated professionals from the Black elite who sought to petition the white minority government for land rights, voting franchises, and an end to pass laws.

In its formative decades, the ANC pursued a strategy of “politics of petitioning,” sending delegations to London in 1914 and engaging in passive resistance. Under President Josiah Gumede (1927–1930), it flirted with mass mobilization and alliances with the Communist Party of South Africa, but conservative shifts led to stagnation. The 1940s marked a revival under Alfred Bitini Xuma, fueled by urban migration, trade union growth, and the formation of the ANC Youth League (ANCYL) in 1944 by firebrands like Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu, and Oliver Tambo. This era laid the groundwork for a more assertive nationalism.

The Anti-Apartheid Struggle (1950s–1980s)

The National Party’s 1948 victory and entrenchment of apartheid galvanized the ANC into action. In 1949, it adopted the Programme of Action, embracing strikes, boycotts, and civil disobedience. The 1952 Defiance Campaign, a joint effort with Indian and Coloured groups, defied unjust laws and ballooned membership to over 100,000. This momentum peaked at the 1955 Congress of the People in Kliptown, where the Freedom Charter was adopted—a visionary document proclaiming “The People Shall Govern” and non-racial democracy.

Repression followed: the 1956 Treason Trial ensnared 156 leaders, including Mandela, though all were acquitted in 1961. The Sharpeville Massacre on March 21, 1960—where police killed 69 peaceful protesters—proved a turning point, leading to the ANC’s ban in April 1960. Forced underground and into exile, the ANC formed uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK, “Spear of the Nation”) in 1961 as its armed wing, partnering with the South African Communist Party (SACP) for sabotage against infrastructure.

Exiled leaders, headquartered in Lusaka, Zambia, from 1963, coordinated guerrilla warfare and international advocacy. The 1976 Soweto Uprising, sparked by Afrikaans-language education policies, swelled MK ranks with exiled youth. Notable MK operations included the 1983 Church Street bombing and others through the 1980s, though civilian casualties drew international condemnation, with the U.S. listing the ANC as a terrorist group until 2008. Under Oliver Tambo’s presidency (1967–1991), the ANC secured Soviet support and built global solidarity, culminating in sanctions that pressured the apartheid regime.

Key Figures

The ANC’s history is etched with towering leaders:

• Nelson Mandela: ANCYL co-founder, MK commander, imprisoned 27 years (1962–1990), ANC president (1991–1997), and South Africa’s first Black president (1994–1999).
• Oliver Tambo: Exile-era president, diplomat who globalized the struggle.
• Walter Sisulu and Albert Luthuli: Architects of non-violent resistance; Luthuli won the 1960 Nobel Peace Prize.
• Thabo Mbeki: Diplomat turned president (1999–2008), focused on African Renaissance.
• Jacob Zuma: ANC president (2007–2017), South African president (2009–2018), later expelled in 2024 for backing a rival party.
• Cyril Ramaphosa: Current ANC president (since 2017) and South African president (since 2018), trade unionist turned reformer.

Women like Winnie Madikizela-Mandela and Lilian Ngoyi also shaped the movement’s militant edge.

Transition to Democracy (1990–1994)

By the late 1980s, apartheid’s unsustainability forced negotiations. President F.W. de Klerk unbanned the ANC and released Mandela on February 11, 1990, leading to the Pretoria Minute, which suspended the armed struggle. Amid violence from a “third force” (state-backed Inkatha Freedom Party clashes), talks via the Convention for a Democratic South Africa forged an interim constitution in 1993.

The April 27, 1994, elections—South Africa’s first multiracial vote—saw the ANC triumph with 62.65% (252/400 seats), electing Mandela president in a Government of National Unity. This peaceful handover ended centuries of white rule.

Governance and Policies (1994–Present)

Since 1994, the ANC has dominated as a dominant-party system, winning every national election until 2024. Its Tripartite Alliance with the SACP and COSATU underpins social democratic policies: the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) tackled housing and services; Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR, 1996) shifted to neoliberal growth; and Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) addressed inequities.

Presidents Mandela, Mbeki, Zuma, and Ramaphosa advanced land reform, social grants (reaching 18 million by 2020), and HIV/AIDS treatment under Mbeki’s successor. Foreign policy emphasizes pan-Africanism, with strong China ties since 1961.

Prosperity has been uneven: unemployment hovers at 32%, inequality persists, and corruption scandals—Arms Deal (1999), Oilgate (2005), and state capture under Zuma (detailed in the 2018–2022 Zondo Commission)—eroded trust. The 2012 Marikana Massacre (34 miners killed) and cadre deployment (party loyalists in key posts) fueled accusations of cronyism. Financially, the ANC reported insolvency in 2017, with debts over R200 million by 2021, leading to unpaid staff and crowdfunding; in 2025, it struggles with a R150 million debt repayment.

Breakaways like the Pan Africanist Congress (1959), Economic Freedom Fighters (2013), and uMkhonto weSizwe party (2023, backed by Zuma) highlight factionalism. Internationally, the ANC’s neutrality on Russia’s 2022 Ukraine invasion drew U.S. ire.

The 2024 elections marked a watershed: the ANC’s 40.18% vote ended its outright majority, forcing a Government of National Unity (GNU) coalition with the Democratic Alliance (DA), Inkatha Freedom Party, and others, controlling 72% of seats. Ramaphosa retained the presidency, but the coalition faces tensions, including the DA’s October 2025 bill to repeal race-based laws like BEE, seeking ANC support.

Financial scrutiny intensifies, with reports of a R200 million siphoning scandal and debt woes threatening operations. Yet, the ANC pushes inclusive growth, welcoming EU investments in October 2025 and appointing a new OR Tambo School board. As South Africa’s “broad church,” it grapples with renewal, balancing its revolutionary past against demands for accountability in a fragile democracy.